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Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., and Franks, J. J. In some of the experiments, participants do not have the opportunity to reread the text after the testing phase and no feedback is provided (e.g., Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Rummer etal., 2017, Exp. The surprise quiz data were scored by a student assistant who was blind to the experimental condition. J. Exp. In this setting, it is not very probable that the students relearned the materials following the course exam, passing which was their main purpose. The study by Gharib etal. Rethinking the use of tests: a meta-analysis of practice testing. also Camerer etal., 2018) or note-taking (McDaniel etal., 2009; Dobson and Linderholm, 2015; Nguyen and McDaniel, 2016; Rummer etal., 2017). We discuss these results with respect to two possible explanations, retrieval practice and motivational differences. Overall, these studies indicate that the testing effect translates to naturalistic learning settings. 2) different conditions in a within-subject design, four of which included practice tests: study plus closed-book test, study plus closed-book test with feedback, study plus open-book test, and study and take an open-book test simultaneously. 140, 14321463. 17, 382395. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.358. The testing effect can also be explained in terms of transfer-appropriate processing (Morris etal., 1977): From this perspective, practicing retrieval during learning is beneficial because it is more similar to the processing required at test than is restudying (e.g., Bjork, 1988; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006). The students in both groups were told that they would receive practice questions addressing the content of the current seminar lesson. Impoverished cue support enhances subsequent retention: support for the elaborative retrieval explanation of the testing effect. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.01.008, Rowland, C. A. RR adviced during the seminars. Therefore, we could not relate the data collected in the module exam to the data collected in the surprise quiz. Cogn. The experimental group and the control group received the same practice tests, but students in the control group could consult provided documents while answering the questions (open-book tests) and students in the experimental group could not (closed-book tests). They were informed that the two seminars were part of a research project investigating students learning behavior. All the participants were undergraduate students of psychology in their first semester. For the remainder of the lesson, there was time for discussion, except for the final 10min, in which the practice tests took place. Yet, the study reported here was conducted in line with the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association (APA) and the German Association of Psychology (DGPs), which are in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The two seminars were taught by the same instructor (AS, the third author) and the lessons followed the exact same predetermined script in both groups and used the same literature. doi: 10.1037/a0023588, Rummer, R., Schweppe, J., Gerst, K., and Wagner, S. (2017). Ecological validity of the testing effect: the use of daily quizzes in introductory psychology. In the second year, students took the final 510min of each class to answer 26 short-answer questions addressing the same days lecture without consulting their notes. Mem. *Correspondence: Ralf Rummer, rummer@uni-kassel.de. (2011). 6, 379393. doi: 10.1126/science.1199327. Roediger, H. L. III, Agarwal, P. K., McDaniel, M. A., and McDermott, K. B. (2009). Cogn. Verbal Behav. 22, 5971. There is also one field experiment investigating the benefits of open-book versus closed-book tests, which was conducted with students in an introductory psychology course (Gharib etal., 2012). Based on these considerations, it is not justified to interpret our findings solely in terms of a direct retrieval practice effect. Expectancy of an open-book test decreases performance on a delayed closed-book test. Trends Cogn. Nat. The present field experiment demonstrates a learning advantage of closed-book practice tests over open-book practice tests. How Desirable Are "Desirable Difficulties for Learning in Educational Contexts? =0.16. The experiment took place during 8weeks of two parallel introductory seminars in cognitive psychology at the University of Erfurt (title: Cognition) taught by the third author, with one course serving as the experimental group (closed-book tests) and the other as the control group (open-book tests). The testing effect in the psychology classroom: a meta-analytic perspective. Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: the role of modality and contiguity. Lyle and Crawford (2011) compared two sections of an undergraduate course on statistics for psychology in consecutive years taught by the same instructor. 17, 159173. Therefore, we analyzed performance on the exam questions that covered overlapping content (related exam questions) as an additional dependent variable to explore whether a potential retrieval practice effect transfers to related but different test questions. 1). Students had to answer these questions by themselves with a few sentences. Testing is also assumed to have indirect effects on future learning behavior because it provides diagnostic information on the current state of learning. In these lessons, all students received two to three questions concerning the content of the respective lesson. Their participants read expository texts and then either answered summarization or inference questions, either with or without the opportunity to reinspect the text. Students could have benefited from retrieval practice either because memory traces were strengthened by elaborating the encoded information and by creating different retrieval routes to the information in long-term memory (e.g., Carpenter and DeLosh, 2006; Carpenter, 2009) or because practicing retrieval during learning constituted transfer-appropriate processing (e.g., Morris etal., 1977; Bjork, 1988; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006). Z. Psychol. Kornell, N., Rabelo, V. C., and Klein, P. J. A potential methodological issue is that most studies compare testing only to a passive restudy control condition, as in the typical procedure described above (Kornell etal., 2012). Surprisingly, however, previous studies comparing open-book and closed-book tests (with feedback), have not found any differences. Here, students received between two and three short-answer questions on a sheet of paper that addressed central aspects of the papers that had been covered in the current lesson (16 questions in total). (2009). The related and unrelated questions were not matched with respect to difficulty and could not be matched with respect to the delay between coverage in class and the exam. This is, however, not the case for the module exam, for which participation was obligatory and for which group sizes did not differ. Teach. 10:463. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00463. Gist trace processing to explain the testing effect. Gates, A. I. doi: 10.1007/s11409-016-9163-9. Z. Psychol. Remarkably, though, these beneficial effects did not always show up at the typical final test delay of 1week, but only after a 2weeks delay (Rummer etal., 2017, Exp. Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A., and Sundararajan, N. (2017). M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, and R. N. Sykes (London: Wiley), 396401. Different rates of forgetting following study versus test trials. Nonetheless, our results suggest that open-book and closed-book testing are not equivalent, at least from an applied point of view. Mem. doi: 10.1037/a0015371, Moreno, R., and Mayer, R. E. (1999). As the closed-book advantage showed up in the exam data as well, we assume that it cannot solely be attributed to the different attendance rates for the surprise quizat least when considering both dependent variables in combination. Thus, the test format of the course exam should not have influenced students behavior between the manipulation and the final test. In this case, the higher scores for the closed-book group in the surprise quiz might also be due to selectivity of the sample because only the more motivated students in the closed-book group showed up for the session in which the surprise quiz took place. 27, 913919. In the first 5min of each lesson, students could ask questions regarding the previous lesson (including regarding the practice questions). Adv. In the introduction of this paper, we stated that comparing learning performance of closed-book practice tests with open-book practice tests is the strongest test for the retrieval practice hypothesis. Psychol. Tests enhance learningCompared to what? Psychol. Roelle and Berthold (2017) also applied a closed-book test versus open-book test manipulation while additionally varying the complexity of the questions. Psychol. Sci. J. Educ. J. Mem. Learn. J. Educ. B. We will further report performance on the 21 unrelated exam questions. Learn. 40, 528539. Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Note-taking and open-book tests are similar in that learners process the material more elaborately and more actively than during rereading but do not need to retrieve any information from memory since the material is at hand. J. Educ. Half the participants (open-book group) were allowed to use their notes and the course materials, which had been distributed at the beginning of each class; the other half was not allowed to use these materials (closed-book group). Then student presentations took place, which lasted 30min for each paper and for which printouts of the slides were distributed to the students. Sci. Hum. 20, 516522. (1977). Extending the testing effect to self-regulated learning. Assuming that there is a reliable closed-book advantage in the present study despite its limitations, this can be interpreted as a retrieval practice effect because the practice tests only differed in the degree to which retrieval from long-term memory was required to answer the questions. 34, 268276. The JOIs of text comprehension: supplementing retrieval practice to enhance inference performance. Learn. Nguyen, K., and McDaniel, M. A. Many (laboratory) studies concerned with the testing effect follow a typical procedure: First, participants are presented with the learning material, regularly a brief science text. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.252, Wheeler, M. A., Ewers, M., and Buonanno, J. Fifty-one students took part in the module exam, 25 from the open-book group and 26 from the closed-book group. This issue should be addressed in future studies either by having students write a learning diary orpreferablyby providing the learning materials online and logging the learning times. Learn. The main dependent variable was performance on a surprise quiz in week 8. Front. 1. Evaluating the replicability of social science experiments in nature and science between 2010 and 2015. All 59 students agreed to participate in the study and signed a written consent form, which also included the permission to utilize their data (made anonymous) in a scientific publication. (1978). Psychol. 16 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Learn. 2 Mem. The instructor closely supervised preparation of the presentations and of the handouts to ensure that the input in the two groups was of the same quality and informativeness. Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: the benefits of elaborative retrieval. The results of Gharib etal. Given that merely rereading a text is not very effective in itself, this may result in an overestimation of the size and the importance of the testing effect (Kornell etal., 2012). Examining the testing effect with open-and closed-book tests. We expect that participants performance should differ with respect to the testing condition (closed book > open book). Test-enhanced learning in the classroom: long-term improvements from quizzing. This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendation of the ethics committee of the Faculty of Educational Sciences of the University of Erfurt with written informed consent from the subjects in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02325.x, Melcher, J. H., and Schooler, J. W. (1996). (2017). Performance on these quizzes accounted for 8% of students overall course grade. Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Test-enhanced learning in a middle school science classroom: the effects of quiz frequency and placement. False memory propensity in people reporting recovered memories of past lives. 68, 396481. Thus, final test delays of up to 1week might have been too short to detect a retrieval practice effect compared to open-book testing. 118, 399404. Half of the 16 questions appeared in the same format; the other half was transformed into a different test format: one short-answer question was changed to four true-false statements each. (2008) might be responsible for the different findings. Educ. Cogn. J. Exp. The present field study compared open-book testing and closed-book testing in two (parallel) introductory university courses in cognitive psychology. A comparison of the effects of exam types on performance, retention, and anxiety. (2008) had their participants study prose passages in six (Exp. Schwieren etal., 2017). Nonetheless, it cannot be excluded that the predicted closed-book effect was (at least partly) due to demand characteristics. 49, 142156. 16, 519533. The exam covered only the lecture, but three topics overlapped with the topics covered during the learning phase of the experiment. However, in their study, the practice tests were actual exams and the test that served as the dependent variable was a delayed (surprise) retention quiz. J. Exp. J. Verbal Learn. Psychol. Forty-six participants showed up for the surprise quiz, 27 from the open-book group and 19 from the closed-book group. This field experiment was based on a one-factorial between-subjects design with the independent factor practice test type (open-book vs. closed-book). Agarwal and Roediger (2011) replicated these findings for comprehension questions (identical with the practice questions) and transfer questions that required participants to indicate why a certain detail from the passage was true (after a 2-day final test delay). doi: 10.1037/a0035934, Bouwmeester, S., and Verkoeijen, P. P. (2011). Regeneration in the short-term recall of sentences. This resulted in 30 participating students in the open-book group and 29in the closed-book group, 46 of which showed up for the surprise quiz, 27 from the open-book group (mean age=20.96years, 3 males plus 1 person who did not provide gender information) and 19 from the closed-book group (mean age=20.53years, 1 male). Since the content of the learning materials was highly relevant to the students in our study, it might well be that indirect feedback resulted in more extensive study at home in the closed-book group than in the open-book group. 4. (2012) used a delay of 2weeks but their findings are not easily comparable to the other studies, as the manipulation did not concern a learning condition in terms of a practice test but an exam condition: students had either access to their notes, to a self-prepared cheat sheet, or to none of the former in the exam. doi: 10.1037/a0021782, McDaniel, M. A., Howard, D. C., and Einstein, G. O. doi: 10.1177/1529100612453266, Fernandez, J., and Jamet, E. (2017). (2012) field experiment in which open-book and closed-book tests in a university course did not affect performance in a later test might speak against this interpretation. Self-testing promotes superior retention of anatomy and physiology information. doi: 10.1177/0098628316677492. doi: 10.1177/1475725717695149, Sweller, J. The total score (in percent) served as the main dependent variable. The first and the last lessons of the experiment covered one psychological journal paper each, the remaining five lessons covered two papers each (see Table 1).

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